Factors Affecting Exchange Rates Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1791 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Exchange rates play a vital role in a countrys level of trade, which is critical to every free market economy in the world. One very basic definition of exchange rates is the rates at which one unit of a countrys currency can be exchanged into another one. As such, the observation of exchange rates is crucial and its one of the most watched, analysed and fluctuate economic variables. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Factors Affecting Exchange Rates Finance Essay" essay for you Create order But exchange rates do matter on a smaller scale as well: they impact the real return of an investors portfolio. Exchange rates for countries which operate under a flexible exchange rates system are determined through the foreign exchange rates also known as the FOREX. The forex market is believed to be the largest, most efficient and liquid financial markets. The forex market regroups international players through a network of computers that connect participants from across the globe. 2.1.1 Factors affecting exchange rates Exchange rates vary within second, like any commodity, the mechanism of exchange rates operates through factor of demand and supply. It is essential to know the main factors that cause these instant movements in exchange rates are: Interest rate and Inflation It is important to note that exchange rates, interest rates and inflation are three highly correlated factors. The manipulation of interest rates by Central Bank of its benchmark rates is reflected in the retail interest rates, that is, the price charged by banks or other financial institution in the business of lending money. Higher interest rates would boost up foreign investment by attracting investors seek higher return on investment. This will increase the demand for the domestic currency. Furthermore, if a country is underperforming, a measure to boost up consumption is by Central Bank to lower the interest rates thus making borrowing cheaper. https://fxtrade.oanda.com/learn/top-5-factors-that-affect-exchange -rates https://www.barclayswealth.com/international/foreign-exchange/currency-rates.htm# https://www.forexbite.com/trading-courses/fundamental/factors-that-affect-exchange-rate https://www.starfishfx.com/learn-forex-lesson-6 https://www.trading-point.com/foreign-exchange-prices https://www.investopedia.com/articles/basics/04/050704.asp#axzz2JBtSIgnn 2.2 Stock Market Index Stock Index or Stock market index is a way of measuring or tracking the value of a section of a stock market. In general, the computation of stock indices is done by combining the prices of selected stock (weighted average). Indices can be calculated using two different methodologies: Price- weighted index: whereby only the price of the stock is used to calculate the value of the index. Dow Jones is an example of such index. Market-weighted index: use the market capitalization of companies for calculating the value of the index. It is the most broadly-used indexes today, such as SP 500 and Hang-Seng indices. Stock Index is an important tool for investors or financial managers to make investment decision, for forecasting and assessing their returns on investment. Most widely followed stock indexes are from the US market, the SP 500, Nasdaq and the Dow Jones. Other significant international stock markets indexes are Nikkei 225 (Japan),  FTSE  100 (UK) and Hang Seng (Hong Kong). 2.3 Theoretical Review There exist no theoretical consensus on the existence or the direction of any relationship between stock prices and exchange rates. But instead, classical economic theory hypothesis discuss the linkage between stock prices and exchange rates trough two models: flow oriented model (Dornbusch and Fischer, 1980 and Gavin, 1989) and the stock-oriented model (Branson, 1983 and Frankel, 1983). The flow oriented model assumes that important determinants of exchange rates are through a countrys current account and balance of trade performance. Under this model, it is assumed that exchange rate affects the valuation of a firm through its competitiveness since it affects the cost of capital borrowed from overseas and also earnings made in foreign currencies. This in-turn influences real economic variables such as real income and output subsequently affects the current and future cash flows of companies and thus their stock prices. This goes in line with what had been discussed by Dornbusc her and Fischer which states that stock prices is defined as discounted present value of a firms expected future cash flows; thereby any events affecting a firms cash flow will be projected in the firms stock prices.  [1] As for the stock oriented models, as opposed to flow oriented model, stipulate that changes in stock prices cause changes in exchange rates through the use of financial account (capital account) transactions. Two distinct models can help in explaining the stock oriented model: the portfolio balance model and the monetary model. Under the portfolio model, it is assumed the investors diversified their portfolio as a measure of minimising risk by holding both domestic and foreign assets. As such, if prices of local assets increase, this will leads to an appreciation of the domestic currency. For instance, a rise (following a boom in the market) in the domestic assets prices will cause investors to demand more of local asset and subsequently selling foreign assets . This will lead to an increase in demand of local currency while increasing the supply of foreign currency causing a shift in the demand and supply of currencies which thereby induce an appreciation of the local currency. Another way of viewing this appreciation of the domestic currency following an increase in stock price; this will lead to an increase domestic wealth and hence demand for money, which in-turn raises the domestic interest rates. With higher interest rate, the domestic market is able to attract foreign capital, leading to an appreciation of the domestic currency. Thus, this establishes a positive causality linkage running from stock prices to exchange rates. The monetary model view exchange rates as being determine as a relative asset prices  [2]  , it assume that the current exchange rates reflects future expected exchange rates, which are affected by other factors than that of stock prices. Therefore under this model, stock prices and exchange rates should not show any linkage.  [3] The relationship between stock prices and exchange rates can be examined in the case of an import-dominant country and export-dominant country. Ma and Kao (1990) (missing) 2.4 Empirical Review During the past three decades, a large number of empirical studies tried to examine existence and direction of causality between Exchange Rates and Stock prices, using data of different stock indices as well as different time horizon. One of the earliest attempts in examining the nexus between exchange rates and stock prices was by Franck and Young (1972) who conclude that there was no significant interaction between the variables. Furthermore, studies at that time focuses on US market only and one of the most predominant studies was by Aggarwal (1981) which depicts the link between exchange rates and stock prices by analysing the correlation between the changes in the US trade-weighted exchange rates and changes in US stock markets indices using monthly data for the period 1974 to 1978. The study indicates a positive correlation during the period leading Aggarwal to conclude that the variables interacted in a manner consistent with the flow-model. In contrast, Soenen and Heniga r (1988) reported strong negative interaction using monthly data of the U.S. dollar effective exchange rate and U.S. stock market index for the period 1980 to 1986. One study which provides a foundation for further studies was by Ma and Kao (1990), whereby they test the degree of stock prices reaction to exchange rates changes in different countries. The differences among countries were explained by the nature of their economies, specifically by the extent to which the economy depends on exports and imports. As per their research, an appreciating currency negatively affects the domestic stock market for a country with larger export sector and positively affects the domestic stock market for an import-dominant country. Earlier studies relating to the issue used mainly statistical techniques such as simple regression and correlation to establish any relationship between stock prices and exchange rates. These studies suffer from a serious limitation as they omit to recognize the fact that most financial variables are non-stationary. Since early nineties, researches started using advance econometrics tools to find a relationship between the variables and their assorted results. Bahmani-Oskooee and Sohrabian (1992) was the first to employ causality tests in the examination of any linkage between stock prices and exchange rates. They used co-integration to investigate the relationship between monthly data on SP 500 index and US dollar effective exchange rate for the period 1973-1988. They showed bi-directional causality, at least in the short run. Their results affirm both stock-model and flow-model. As Ajayi and Mougoue (1996) search the relationship between exchange rates and stock indices for eight advanced economies using daily data from 1985 to 1991. According to results of study, there are significant short-run and long-run feedback relations between these two financial markets. An increase in stock price has a negative short-run effect as well as a positive long-run effect on domestic currency value. Also, currency depreciation has a negative both short-run and long-run effect on the stock market. Ajayi et al. (1998) take daily market indexes and exchange rates to investigate causal relations between stock returns and changes in exchange rates for seven advanced markets from 1985 to 1991 and eight Asian emerging markets from 1987 to 1991. The empirical results show that there is a unidirectional causality between the stock and currency markets in all the advanced economies while no consistent causal relations exist in the emerging economies. They explained the different results between advanced and emerging economies with the differences in the structure and characteristics of financial markets between these groups. Staverek (2005) investigated the causality between effective exchange rates and stock prices for eight EU countries and the USA. He employed vector error correction modelling, co-integration analysis and th e standard Granger causality test. The results appear to be unidirectional and causality runs from stock prices to exchange rates, the causal relations for the period 1993-2003 were stronger than in 1970-1992. Additionally for old EU countries (Austria, France, Germany, UK) and for USA the causality was stronger than for new EU countries (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia). Richards et al. (2009) depicts the interaction between stock prices and exchange rates in an Australian context. Their results were in consistent with the portfolio balance model, Granger causality runs from stock prices to the exchange rates. Very few researchers actually analyse the dynamics relationship between Stock prices and Exchange rates in Africa. Adjasi et al. (2011) is among the few to investigate the relationship between these variables in seven African countries. The analysis was made for the period 1992 to 2005 by using vector autoregressive (VAR) cointegration and impulse response ana lysis to determine the long- and short-run linkages between stock prices and exchange rates. Their findings were, whether in short run or long run, cointegration was found for Tunisia, where exchange rate depreciation drives stock prices down. Furthermore, Shocks induced by either stock prices or the exchange rate are more protracted in Ghana, Kenya, Mauritius and Nigeria than in South Africa and Egypt.

The Ideal Style And Application Methods Of Leadership Essay

Change Management within this Organization Leadership is; expected, valued, respected and rewarded within this organization. This trait is specially selected for, and then systematically developed and honed at all levels, and at all positions within the organization. The ideal style and application methods of such leadership within this organization has evolved over the years. And, the organization now places a high premium on those individuals who can not only lead, but that can then readily follow as the situation dictates, who can compete and then later cooperate, and those who can best transition their applied leadership and management style; to best fit the situation and circumstances at hand, ensuring optimal results while inspiring excellence in performance. Rather than those who, for example, simply default to an autocratic and dictatorial leadership style. Autocratic and dictatorial leadership styles were the norm for western armies as recent as World War I. The military historian Professor Gary Sheffield, on the BBC website, captures well the sentiment and perspective shared by many historians who’s common †¦stereotype is that the ordinary soldiers were lions led by donkeys – the donkeys being incompetent, uncaring generals, responsible for thousands of unnecessary deaths during WWI. And while Professor Sheffield goes on to argue effectively in regards to the inherent leadership capability and merits of a series of British Military leaders of that time; to includeShow MoreRelatedVisionary Leadership : The Ideal Management Style964 Words   |  4 Pages business leaders are coming to understand that management styles are more about organizational circumstance rather than individual preferences. Often, it is necessary to use more than one leadership style. Which ones depend on what challenge the business leader curre ntly faces. 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Rockaway pipeline Free Essays

I do not support radon gas because of its harmful effects that can affect everyone around or using the gas. Radon is second leading cause of lung cancer, the primary adverse health effect associated with chronic exposure to radon is lung cancer typically bronchogenic, squamous cell carcinoma, small cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, large cell carcinoma. Radon also has the potential to generate genotoxic effects higher incidence of chromosomal aberrations. We will write a custom essay sample on Rockaway pipeline or any similar topic only for you Order Now Radon has been linked with erotogenic effects. Radon and smoking displayed a synergistic effect. Increased levels of exposure to radon increase the probability of observing an effect; however, increased levels of exposure do not necessarily influence the type or severity of the effect. There are no zero risk thresholds for radon exposure, but instead, risk increases proportionate to the exposure time. Pipelines can explode at any time for many different reasons, and those reasons can be the cause of why shopping malls, ouses, and schools could be the victims of a fatal fire after the pipelines explode. You state that the pipelines would have periodic checks and be monitored 24 hours a day, every year, but tell that to the campers of Floyd Benet Park, the trees there are prone to fire, and I sincerely doubt that you wish to spend all your profits fixing on the reparation needed to replenish all the trees. Radon decays to equally radioactive and dangerous particles, like polonium and radioactive lead, In addition, before being broken down to regular, non-radioactive lead. When people breathe in, radon is exhaled, but the radon particles ends up inside the lungs, which then will cause cancer. Only because the radon is a heavy, gas and usually gravitates towards the open floor, making in harmful for children, pets and adults The Radon particles and the progeny can plate out the sides ot gas pipelines, which makes the pipelines hot and radioactive, then making them hazardous. I recently found out that in 1986, EPA had set a limit for exposure to radon in air at 4 picocuries per liter. Being that there is increased exposure to many inds of radiation in the world today. Universities and Organizations like John Hopkins Universities and the World Health Organization have said that 2. 7 picocuries per liter would be a much better standard, but in reality, there is really know safe level of exposure. To Whom is reading this Letter I sincerely hope you take account all of the facts and examples that I have written and explained to you this day, and I hope the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission understands the dangers or this gas and how it can affect our community, How to cite Rockaway pipeline, Papers

Sentencing Paper free essay sample

Paper Deadrian Williams CJS/ 200 3/3/2013 Bryan Maglicco Six Forms of Punishment Fines are one of the oldest forms of punishment, the use of fines as criminal sanctions suffers from built in inequities and a widespread failure to collect them (Schmalleger, 2011). Fines can deprive offenders of the proceeds of criminal activity, and also promote rehabilitation by enforcing economic responsibility (Schmalleger, 2011). People have to pay fines when they break minor laws, such as driving while intoxicated, reckless driving, disturbing the peace, public drunkenness, and vandalism (Schmalleger, 2011). Capital punishment is the death penalty. Capital punishment is the most extreme of all sentencing options (Schmalleger, 2011). Capital punishment is sentenced when someone comments a capital offense. In 2008, for example, a twenty eight year old man was sentenced to death in the atrocious murder of a ten year old girl in what authorities said was an elaborate plan to cannibalize the girls flesh (Schmalleger, 2011). Today, the federal government and 35 of the 50 states permit execution for first degree murder, kidnapping, aggravated rape, the murder of a police or corrections officer, or murder while under a life sentence (Schmalleger, 2011). We will write a custom essay sample on Sentencing Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Probation is another form of punishment. Probation means testing the behavior or abilities. In a legal sense, an offender on probation is ordered to follow certain conditions set forth by the court, often under the supervision of a probation officer (Wikipedia, 2013). Offenders are ordinarily required to refrain from firearms, and may be ordered to remain employed, have a curfew, live in a decent place and not leave the jurisdiction (Wikipedia, 2013). Incarceration is another form of punishment. Jails are shorter lock up centers ran by counties and operated by sheriffs (Cliffnotes. com Types of Sentences, 2013). Usually inmates that are in jail are waiting to go to trial who were unable to make bail, people with misdemeanors, and felons who violated probation (Cliffnotes. com Types of Sentences, 2013). Also people re incarcerated in prisons who are convicted felons. Prisons are operated by the state (Cliffnotes. com Types of Sentences, 2013). Community service is another form of punishment. Community service is paying your debt back to society for the wrong doings that a person does, by doing work that benefits the community (Cliffnotes. com Types of Sentences, 2013). People doing community service clean up highways, cut grass, plant trees and flo wers, and wash away graffiti. People who are punished with community service have a certain amount of hours they must do to complete the community service order. Failure to complete community service can lead to possibly jail time and more fines. Reducing recidivism Recommendations on how to modify the sentencing process would be to look at the record of the defendant and also the severity of the crime when sentencing. If someone has committed a murder or a rape, or kidnapping then they should get the severest sentence possible even if it is their first time because those crimes are against people. Families have been destroyed because of what the person did. Good behavior should not play in the sentencing of these offenders. They did not think about the victims when they committed the crime so the courts should not give them a break because of good behavior. If the sentencing process was stricter and focused more on the offender punishment and not what other people would say and feel about the crime then it would be a lot less crimes. References Cliffnotes. com Types of Sentences. (2013, March 4). Retrieved from Cliffnotes. com: http://m. cliffnotes. com Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminal Justice Today. Prentice Hall. Wikipedia, (2013).

Research on hormone growth paper free essay sample

There are several point of views as to whether or not resistance exercise can manipulate or increase serum concentrations such as testosterone, insulin-like growth factor-I, and growth hormones. In turn, it was thought that resistance hormones would increase hypertrophy and an increase in anabolic hormones. To get a full understanding of what hypertrophy stood for, I researched the meaning and it was defined as a cross-sectional area of the muscle cell. The myofibril has an increase in the number of units of actin and myosin, and in turn, have more contractile units to be packed in a single muscle cell leading to an increase of cross ridging. This will increase the amount of force a muscle produces with high intensity and low volume training for strength and power. The Sarcoplasmic is an increase in non-contractile units from moderate to low intensity training with decreased times between sets. An anabolic hormone means to build up and therefore, anabolic steroids are hormones. So, the articles that we have researched are questioning as to whether the anabolic hormones enhance muscle tone following a low hormone intensity resistance exercise and rest or a high intensity hormone resistance training exercise with no rest and additional intensity in another area uch as the leg or upper body for example. The first article is called Elevated endogenous testosterone concentrations potentiate muscle androgen receptor responses to resistance exercise. The authors of the article are Spiering, Kramer, Vingren, Ratamess, Anderson, Armstron, Nindl, Volek, Hakkinen, and Maresh and it was published in the Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology in 2009. The purpose of the study was to determine the influence of circulating testosterone on muscle androgen receptor responses on acute resistance exercise. The patient type was male. The average age as plus or minus 4 years of 26. All participants were healthy men. The protocol was knee extensions on two occasions separated by 1-3 weeks. The first trial provided rest after the exercises and this was called the control group. The second trial provided a high intensity upper body workout designed to increase circulating T preceding the other trial with no rest. Serial blood samples and biopsies were obtained pre rest; 10 minutes post rest, and 180 min post rest to determine the androgen receptor content. The results showed that in the control group the circulating t concentrations emained stable. However, during the High Trial, there was a significant difference of 16% above resting values. Testosterone levels during the High Intensity Trial were significantly great than the Control Trial. The end result was that the combination of muscle contraction and elevated T Concentrations increases AR content in the high intensity trial by overloading muscle intensity and at 180 minutes exceeding the Control value. In conclusion, there was an increase in acute elevations in circulating T muscle AR content following RE. The Control group did heavy load knee extensions nd long rest periods which did not produce a major hormonal response. However, the High Trial performed upper body exercises on the bench press, bench row, and overhead press exercise prior to the knee extension. This high volume, short rest results that were significantly different when comparing both trials the authors believe that the small patient population of 6 men was not a large enough trial to detect a statistical difference in some instances. It is also believed that in the future, there should be not only larger sample groups but also broader assays of circulating T concentrations. In article two, which is called Resistance exercise-induced in putative anabolic hormones do not enhance muscle protein synthesis or intracellular signaling in young men. The article was written by West, KuJbida, Moore, Atherton, Burd, Padzik, De Lisio, Tang, Parise, Rennie, Baker and Phillips in Journal compilation. It was published in J Physiol in 2009. The aim of this particular article was to test the hypothesis that if a greater exercise resistance program would increase a hormonal response and enhance MPS and intracellular signaling proteins following acute esistance exercise. There were 8 men in total around 20 years old. The men were not in any type of weight lift program. There were two trials on two separate days. In one trial the participants performed a single arm cable curl exercise to work on the biceps. In the other trial, the participants performed the same single arm exercise with their contralateral arm, followed by high volume, high intensity leg exercises using short rest intervals. A baseline blood sample was performed prior to exercising on the arm that was not going to exercise. The participants in one group began xercising immediately following the start of their infusion and the other group sat at rest for 20 minutes while being infused and then began to exercise. In the low hormone group the men performed unilateral resistance exercise with the elbow flexors. In the high hormone protocol the subjects used the same elbow flexor exercise with the contralateral arm followed by high volume and intense leg resistance exercise. Muscle biopsies and blood samples were taken. There were no changes in testosterone, GH or IGF-I after the low hormone protocol, whereas there were increased elevations after the high hormone protocol. The exercise stimulated a rise in muscle protein synthesis in the biceps with no effect of elevated hormones. This article in summary, is saying that transient resistance exercised does increase anabolic hormones but did not enhance anabolic signaling post exercise in the muscle protein synthesis state. In this study the arm exercise preceded the leg exercises. The authors can only believe that possibly the result could have changed if the leg exercises were conducted first, however, they do not think that the data would have been skewed in a different direction by that much. However, if possibly the leg xercise preceded the arm unless the muscle was more responsive to hormones at some threshold of contraction. In the third article called elevations in ostensibly anabolic hormones with resistance exercise enhance neither training-induced muscle hypertrophy nor strength of the elbow flexors the authors that compiled this article are West, Burd, Tankg, Moore, Staples, Holwerda, Baker and Phillips. The article was published in The American Physiological Society in 2010. In this article, the aim of the study was to see whether resistance exercise induced elevation of hormones and enhances muscle strength and hypertrophy with training. There were twelve men. All were very healthy and around 21 years old. They trained independently for a 15-week period on curl exercises designed to maintain low hormone concentration. The other group exercised the same arm and then followed the exercise immediately by a high volume of leg resistance exercise to increase hormones. There were no significant changes in the low hormone group; however, there were significant elevations immediately after 15 to 30 minutes in the high hormone group. Strength increased in both arms, however, interestingly, the increase in strength was not different from each group. The authors then summarize to say that exercise-induced changes in the concentrations of hormones do not enhance anabolic hormone or build-up. There is no question about it. Strength training builds muscle and makes you stronger. I weight lift several times a week for my lacrosse program. My muscles are tighter and stronger. However, there is controversy over the fact that the hormone response promotes muscle building. The research shows that a low hormone condition in which one arm performed bicep curls only verse a high hormone condition where they trained the contralateral arm with the same exercise followed y high intense leg exercises produced a significant elevation in testosterone, GH, and IGF-I and the low hormone did not. However, there was no difference in protein synthesis, muscle growth and strength gains between the two conditions. The researchers are suggesting that the post exercise response has no effect on hypertrophy. The only thing that I can take away from these conflicting views is that there is a hormone response to certain training programs. Assuming that it would be relevant to muscle building. However, the researchers are saying that according to he data that hypertrophy and strength development and growth will occur whether the anabolic response is there or not. The articles arent suggesting that a male does not need testosterone levels to be healthy.

What Is a Contribution to Cohort Essay Sample?

What Is a Contribution to Cohort Essay Sample?A contribution to cohort essay sample helps you build the personal essay for a teacher or counselor. It is the process of writing your personal essay and it gives you the chance to add something special to your essay by creating the template of your personal essay.One of the reasons why teachers and other professionals feel that they are very important is because they represent the group of people who will be able to attend your college and prepare the curriculum for the class you have to do after graduation. They can guide you and at the same time help to give ideas for the entire process. In the first step you will have to develop your own template, with some or with all of the important parts highlighted so that you will be able to complete it in a short period of time.The theme that you are going to use when you are writing the essay must be familiar to you. You can choose a topic related to the school or the environment that you will be staying at after graduating from school. You can use a theme that relates to your career, but at the same time you can also use a general one.After you have selected the theme of your contribution, the next step is to select the key words that you will be using for your essay. Using the key words will give you the ability to create your individual and particular combination. It is the combination of which you have made use of so that you will be able to make an eloquent and well-written contribution.In some instances you will find that some people make the common mistakes when they are writing their essay. The best thing that you can do if you find yourself in this situation is to read on examples and pick those you can use and those that you will not.The common mistakes that people make when they are trying to write their contribution is that they try to write only for themselves and leave out the others. They are also not able to build the idea in their minds because they fail to write a concise and logical piece of writing.You should know that these are wonderful things and writing a contribution to a cohort is like stepping out of your comfort zone. In addition to that, you will be taking the final exam to continue your education and you will also have a responsibility that you will be following as a professional.

Teen Pregnancy (2423 words) Essay Example For Students

Teen Pregnancy (2423 words) Essay Teen PregnancyTeen PregnancyThesis statement:Teenage pregnancy is a major concern in todays society; there are many ways to prevent teen pregnancy, many people to get advice from, and many decisions that a teen parent must make. Outline:I. IntroductionII. Teenage PregnancyA. Concerns about Teenage PregnancyB. What helps prevent Teen PregnancyC. Source of Advice and SupportIII. Stages of PregnancyA. First TrimesterB. Second TrimesterC. Third TrimesterIV. Challenges of Teenage ParenthoodA. Parenthood OptionsB. Continuing EducationC. Financial ProblemsV. ConclusionTeenage pregnancy is a major concern in todays society; there are many ways to prevent teenage pregnancy, many people to get advice from, and many decisions a teenage parent must make. The statistics tell that the U.S. has the highest rate of teen pregnancy and births. We will write a custom essay on Teen Pregnancy (2423 words) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now More than 4 out of ten young women become pregnant at least once before they reach the age of 20-nearly one billion a year(Teen Pregnancy Facts and Stats 1). Teenage pregnancy has declined slowly but steadily. These recent declines reverse the 24-percent rise in the teenage birth rate from 1986 to 1991 (Teen Pregnancy Facts and Stats 1). Usually only one-third of teenage mothers receive a high school diploma. The rest of the mothers usually end up on welfare. A majority of both boys and girls who are sexually active wish they had waited. Eight in ten girls and six in ten boys say they wish they had waited (Teen Pregnancy Facts and Stats 1). Many people are concerned about the problems teenage parents and their children face. The health risks for a teenage girl who becomes pregnant increase sharply. One of the concerns of teenage mothers is the health risk. Usually young women have more complications in pregnancy than older women. The most hazardous complication is low birth weight. One out of seven babies born to teenage mothers have a low birth weight (Hildebrand 88). Poor eating habits, smoking, or using alcohol or drugs, cause low birth weight. Premature babies and babies with low birth weights often have organs that havent fully developed, such as lungs, heart and brain. These babies get sick easier than normal weight babies. As a result from what was motioned above, teenage mothers are considered to be in the high-risk health category. They need good prenatal care as soon as they find out they are pregnant. A doctor, nurse, or other medical practitioner gives most of the information about nutrition. Prenatal care can help prevent pregnancy complications and improve ones chances of having a healthy baby. The best way to prevent teenage pregnancy, which is 100% effective, is abstinence. Most teenagers have a whole life ahead of them and having a child will cause a lot of complications in your goals. Its no t impossible for teenage mothers to complete high school, or try to reach their goals in life, but having a child could very well interfere with these goals. Another way of protection is condoms. There are a lot of protections out there, but these protections are not 100-percent reliable. There are a lot of places and people to go to for support and advice. In addition there are many organizations and hotlines a teenage mother can contact for advice and assistance. Parents and family are one alternative. There are a lot of teenagers that are afraid of their parents reactions. However, most parents are calmer and more supportive than teenagers expect. Most parents are shocked when the teenager comes and tells them that they are pregnant. Just give the parents time and they will try to give their teenager the best advice that they know. The school nurse or counselor is another place to get advice. The counselor usually can gather up pamphlets and brochures about pregnancy. The counsel or can also help the teenager remain in school. They are very supportive and understanding. Doctors and clinics are very important for a teenage parent to go to. There are a lot of home pregnancy tests available, but the doctor is a lot more reliable and gives a more accurate answer. Family planning counselors are also very professional people who can explain various options and discuss the community resources available to teenagers. They also help arrange for financial assistance and recommend support groups. Since teenagers need a lot of prenatal care, the counselor also offers advice on prenatal care, nutrition information, childbirth classes, and parenting skills. These mentioned are just a few place or people you can go to for advice. Dont ever think that there isnt anyone out there to ask for advice. Teenager mothers would feel a lot more comfortable knowing what was going on with their bodies and how the baby is developing. The next part of this paper is going to explain the first through the third trimester of pregnancy. .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a , .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .postImageUrl , .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a , .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a:hover , .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a:visited , .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a:active { border:0!important; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a:active , .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5fdccf2fb2b7abfe1a49545600f2927a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Alcohol abuse EssayThe average biological length of human gestation, from conception to delivery, is 266 days. Due to the difficulty in assessing the exact date of conception, however, the clinical length of pregnancy is considered to be 280 days or 40 weeks, calculated from the last normal menstrual period before the cessation of menses, or menstrual flow. This calculation assumes that ovulation occurs 14 days after the last menstrual period. Human gestation is further divided into trimesters, each of which lasts slightly more than 13 weeks (Pregnancy and birth 1). In the first trimester the mother experiences nausea and vomiting, morning sickness, in the first 8 weeks. Breast soreness or tingling often occurs due to hormonal stimulation. Fatigue is also a common complaint. The baby is developing organs in the first trimester. The fetus heart begins to beat after 4 weeks. By 8 weeks, the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, fingers, and toes are easily recognizable, and male and female reproductive systems have diffentiated. By 12 weeks all of the organs have developed. During these first weeks, the mother should be very careful because the fetus is most vulnerable to potential teratogenic, birth-defect inducing drugs, radiation, and viruses. All of those factors are very dangerous to the fetus. During the second trimester the mother has increasing abdominal girth and pressure from the growing uterus. Braxton-Hicks contractions may occur. The mother may experience lightheadedness and may even faint due to the effects of the hormones on the blood vessels and the amount of blood diverted to the uterus, placenta, and fetus. There are many discomforts associated with pregnancy, most complained about is heartburn. Despite this discomfort, women are generally more comfor table during the second trimester than the first. During the second trimester the babys thin-walled skin develops, organs begin to function, and blood begins to be formed in the bone marrow. Scalp hair appears, fat increases, and bones begin to harden. About 20 weeks along, the mother can feel the precise movements of the baby. In the third trimester, the last weeks of pregnancy become increasingly uncomfortable. Headaches, shortness of breath, and swelling of legs are the common complaints. False labor pains, or contractions of the uterus that do not lead to progressive dilation, or opening of the cervix, can be particularly uncomfortable. The baby gains weight in the third trimester. Ear lobes begin to develop cartilage, testes begin to descend into the scrotum, nails begin to grow over the tips of the fingers, and creases develop over the soles of the feet. Also, the fetus begins to demonstrate coordinated patterns of behavior that are similar to the cycles of activity and sleep of a newborn. The things mentioned are just an overall view of the trimesters. A womans body undergoes a variety of changes to prepare for the growth, nourishment, and birth of a child. The teenage parent has a lot of challenges that must be overcame and decided, such as parenthood options, continuing education, and financial problems. These mentioned are just a few of the challenges a teenager faces. There are three options parents must decide if they become pregnant. The parents can marry and raise the child together. The mother or father can raise the child as a single parent. The parents can put the baby up for adoption. These are three options that are going to be very hard to decide. Whatever the teenager decides will have a consequence on the baby and the parents. When teenagers become pregnant, the first thing they want to do is rush into marriage. The parents may have talked about marriage but this would be the real thing. Only one-third of the teenagers who become pregnant before the age of 18 are married (Gutman 25). Babies need a lot of attention. They need to be fed, burped, diaper changes, bathe and cuddled. Having someone around to help with these tasks can be very helpful and rewarding for parents and the baby. Most teenage marriages dont last long. The teenagers may think they will have more freedom when they are married. Wrong, you will not have as much freedom. Teenagers are taking on a big responsibility when they marry. Think about it before you rush into marriage. When teenagers marry, they have to make decisions about where to live and how to pay the bills. These are just things you have to decide on. Trying to adjust to parenthood and having a marriage partner will be challenging and overwhelming. As a result, four out of five teenage couples divorce within six years (Hildebrand 94). The marriages that are successful receive support from friends and family. Another option would be singe parenthood. Single parenthood is either the mother or father deciding to raise the child alone. Usually when this happens, the mother is the one to keep the child. Both mother and child usually live with the mothers parents. Money concern plays a major role in teenage marriage, but is a greater problem for single parents. Being a single parent, trying to work, finish school, you must arrange for childcare services. Childcare services can be very expensive for a single parent. Usually if a single parent is balancing school, work, and taking care of a child, the teenager have a lot of support from parents, friends, and relatives. Parents can be big support for a teenage parent. The last option is adoption. To make this decision, the parents would have thought long and hard about the babys needs and their future. Adoption is not bad it may be best for the child if the couple isnt able to provide everything that a baby needs. If the parents werent able to gi ve the baby the good start in life it needs, adoption would be the best option. .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f , .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .postImageUrl , .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f , .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f:hover , .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f:visited , .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f:active { border:0!important; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f:active , .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u32c2e5af6ecdb596b22783330496a11f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: PLate Tetonics EssayAdoptions can be arranged by local, state, religious, and even private agencies. These agencies have a list of couples that wants kids but are unable to have them. The couples background is checked to be certain that they would be the best parents for the baby. Teenage parents who put their child up for adoption can be assured that the child will be taken care of. If the parents decide to give the baby up for adoption before its born, it can be arranged before birth. Adoption laws vary from state to state. An open adoption can be made. This adoption allows the birth and adoptive parents to share information about themselves and the child. The birth moth er usually meets the adoptive parents during the pregnancy or after the birth. The adoptive parents send photographs and letters letting the birth mother know how the child is doing. This is an advantage for the birth mother. The birth parents will know a little about his/her biological background. The adoptive parents can answer most of any questions the child asks about the birth parents. Continuing education is also a major decision when you become a teenage parent. Pregnant teenagers have the right to finish their education. It may be hard, but it is not impossible. In some schools they stay in their regular classes, but in others they are placed in special classes for pregnant teenagers. These classes can be helpful because they help parents learn about pregnancy, prenatal care, and parenting skills. Some schools even have childcare. This would help out a lot of teenage parents trying to finish their education. It is important for teenage parents to complete high school. A lot of jobs require high school diplomas. How can teenagers support their baby with no job?The statistics show that teenagers who dropout usually qualify for the lowest-paying jobs in the community, if even that. That is why having an education will help out a teenage mother or father. Having a high school diploma enables them to have more career choices. The most important challenge of a teenage parent is financial problems. Teenagers face more financial problems than older parents. Even if both parents work, they lack the education or skills needed to obtain a job that can support a family. This is why many teen mothers rely on welfare. Some 63% of teen parents depended on public programs for medical needs and daily living expense in 1992 (Programs that Work Now 1). Aid to families with Dependent Children (AFDC) provides financial support to eligible parents and children. Government assistance is minimal, however, and not always available. This probably wont change in the future becau se of the tax burden of these programs. Because of these programs, it helps prevent teenage mothers living in poverty. Before you become sexually active think of the consequences you face. Teen pregnancy isnt just it, there are many problems such as STDs, AIDS, and HIV. These are all associated with sex. If you are sexually active get on some kind of birth control and always use a condom. Think about the consequences you as a teenager would have to face if you risk getting pregnant. Think about the consequences it would put a baby through. Its tough to be a teenage parent and people will have to sacrifice a lot of things that they used to do now that theres a baby with you. Just remember, dont start having sex just because everybody else is or because someones pressuring you into it. Think about everything, including your future, school, friends, freedom, and your life. WORK CITEDGutman-Bowe, Sonia. Teen Pregnancy. Minneapolis: 1987. Hildebrand, Verna. Parenting: Rewards and Responsibilities. New York: 1988Pregnancy and birth. Grolier, INC. 1996 ed. Programs that work now. AFDC. 1995 online. Internet. 18 November 1999. Available http://www.intac.com/~jdeck/tahra/programstext.html. Teen Pregnancy Facts and Stats. NCPTP. 1999. Online. Internet. 11 November 1999. Available http://www.teenpregnancy.org/factstats.html. Social Issues Essays